Atlas Shrugged is a novel by Ayn blogger.com's fourth and final novel, it was also her longest, and the one she considered to be her magnum opus in the realm of fiction writing. Atlas Shrugged includes elements of science fiction, mystery, and romance, and it contains Rand's most extensive statement of Objectivism in any of her works of fiction. The theme of Atlas Shrugged, as Rand In Marxist philosophy, a character mask (German: Charaktermaske) is a prescribed social role that serves to conceal the contradictions of a social relation or blogger.com term was used by Karl Marx in various published writings from the s to the s, and also by Friedrich blogger.com is related to the classical Greek concepts of mimesis (imitative representation using analogies) and Mar 16, · 1. Life and Works. Since Proclus’ extant works contain almost no evidence about his biography, we have to rely on the information transmitted by his direct pupil Marinus of Neapolis in the eulogy he devoted to his predecessor Proclus or on blogger.comer, some scattered remarks on Proclus and valuable information about the schools in Athens and Alexandria can be found in
Character mask - Wikipedia
In Marxist philosophya character mask German : Charaktermaske is a prescribed social role which conceals the contradictions of a social relation or order. The term was used by Karl Marx in published writings from the s to the s, and also by Friedrich Engels. It is related to the classical Greek concepts of mimesis imitative representation using analogies and prosopopoeia impersonation or personificationand the Roman concept of persona[1] but also differs from them.
Marx's own notion of the character mask was not a fixed idea with a singular definition. As a psychological term, "character" is more common in continental Europe, while in Britain and North America the term "personality" is used in approximately the same contexts. Marx's metaphorical use of the term "character masks" refers find dissertation online köln carnival masks and the masks used in classical Greek theatre.
The issue is the social form in which a practice is acted out. Sophisticated academic language about the sociology of roles did not exist in the midth century. Thus, Marx borrowed from theatre and literature to express his idea. by Jean Duvignaud first emerged in the s. The mask is not a decoration, but performs a function and has effects, even independently of the mask bearer.
The closest equivalent term in modern English is social masks. However, this translation is inappropriate:.
There is a link between character masks and deliberate misrepresentation or hypocrisy. People can mask their behavior, or mask a situation, without being aware that they are doing so.
What distinguishes false-consciousness from error or falsehood, and what motivates a particular kind of critique, of denunciation, is the possibility of signifying another thing than one believes was signified, that is, the possibility of the masked consciousness. These two words, "false consciousness," pertain usually to Marx The task of hermeneutics has always been to read a text and to distinguish the true sense from the apparent sense, to search for the sense under the sense.
It refers to an absence of awareness of what is behind the ideas being worked with, how they originated, or what the real role or effect of the ideas is.
The first result of this is that the ideologists believe they are performing certain intellectual operations with regard to an issue, which, in reality, have a different significance than they expect. The second result is that their intellectual creations can then function as a mask find dissertation online köln what is really at stake, as they portray the issue in a one-sided or distorted way — without them being aware of how that works.
The ideologists are aware and unaware at the same time. The problem, says Engels, is that they exaggerate the power of ideas, to the point where ideas appear to cause everything that happens.
This occurs more often if the intellectual productions are quite distant from the practical context, or if they concern specialized, highly abstract ideas which are difficult to verify. According to Marx and Engels, character masks of an era are the main symbolic expressions of self-justification or apologiawhich disguises, embellishes or obscures social contradictions "the bits that do not fit". A mystical truth find dissertation online köln this context is a cultural idea which cannot be verified, because it is abstract rather than logical.
Mystical truths cannot be tested scientifically, only subjectively experienced. Find dissertation online köln dominant power may [legitimize] itself by promoting find dissertation online köln and values congenial to it; naturalizing and universalizing such beliefs so as to render them self-evident and apparently inevitable; denigrating ideas which might challenge it; excluding rival forms of thought, find dissertation online köln, perhaps by some unspoken but systematic logic; and find dissertation online köln social reality in ways convenient to itself, find dissertation online köln.
Such 'mystification', as it is commonly known, frequently takes the form of masking. Marx argues that, as capitalist class society is intrinsically a contradictory system — it contains many conflicting and competing forces — masking of find dissertation online köln true characteristics is an integral feature of how it operates.
Buyers and sellers compete with other buyers and sellers. Businesses cannot practically do so without confidentiality and secrecy. Workers compete for job opportunities and access to resources. Capitalists and workers compete for their share of the new wealth that is produced, and nations compete with other nations.
The masks are therefore necessary, and the more a person knows about others, find dissertation online köln, the more subtle and sophisticated the masks become. A centerpiece of Marx's critique of political economy is that the labour contract between a worker and their employer obscures the true economic relationship.
Marx argues that workers do not sell their labor, but their labor powerfind dissertation online köln, creating a profitable difference between what they are paid and the value they create for the employer a form of economic exploitation.
Thus, the foundation of capitalist wealth creation involves a mask. This is discovered only when the total context in which they occur is examined, find dissertation online köln.
Hence Marx writes:. Vulgar economics actually does nothing more than to interpret, to systematize and turn into apologetics — in a doctrinaire way — the ideas of the agents who are trapped within bourgeois relations of production.
So it should not surprise us that, precisely within the estranged form of appearance of economic relations in which these prima facie absurd and complete contradictions occur — and all science would be superfluous if the form of appearance of things directly coincided with their essence — that precisely here vulgar economics feels completely at home, and that these relationships appear all the more self-evident to it, the more their inner interconnection remains hidden to it, even though these relationships are comprehensible to the find dissertation online köln mind [18].
This implies another level of masking, because the economic character masks are then equated with authentic behaviour. The effect in this case is, that the theories of economics masks how the economy actually works, by describing its surface appearance as its real nature.
The general principles of economics may appear to explain it, but in reality they do not. The theory is therefore ultimately arbitrary. Either aspects of the economy are studied in isolation from the context in which they occur, or generalizations are formed which leave essential parts out.
These distortions are ideologically useful to justify an economic systemposition or policy as reasonable, but it is a hindrance find dissertation online köln true understanding. Abstractly, the masking processes specific to capitalist society mediate and reconcile social contradictions, which arise from three main sources:. The bourgeoisie has pitilessly torn asunder the motley feudal ties that bound man to his "natural superiors", and has left remaining no other nexus between man and man than naked self-interest, than callous "cash payment".
This "naked self-interest" seems to contradict the idea of "masking" in bourgeois society. Supposedly market trade creates transparency and an "open society" of free citizens. In reality, Marx and Engels claim, it does not. According to Marx, the labour market appears as the "very Eden of the innate rights of man", find dissertation online köln, [25] insofar workers can choose to sell their labour-power freely, but in reality, workers are forced to do so, often on terms unfavourable to them, to survive.
Find dissertation online köln soon as they are inside the factory or office, they have to follow orders and submit to the authority of the employer. Even in "naked commerce", the possible methods of "masking" what one is, what one represents or what one does, are extremely diverse.
Human languages and numerical systems, for example, offer very subtle distinctions of meaning that can "cover up" something, or present it as different from what it really is. Anthropologists, find dissertation online köln, sociologists and linguists have sometimes studied "linguistic masking". Data may be accepted as a valid result, but dismissed as irrelevant or unimportant in a given context, and therefore not worth paying attention to; or conversely, the importance of specific data may be highlighted as being more important than other related facts.
The theatrical mask, find dissertation online köln, expressing an acting role, find dissertation online köln, was supposedly first invented in the West by the Greek actor Thespis of Attica 6th century BC [27] and the Greek Aristotelian philosopher Theophrastus circa — BC is credited with being the first in the West to define human character in terms of a typology of personal strengths and weaknesses.
At that time, the theatre was one of the few places in Germany where opinions find dissertation online köln public affairs could be fairly freely aired, if only in fictionalized form.
Independently from Marx, the romantic novelist Jean Paul also used the concept, in portraying the human problems of individuation. Other early literary uses of the German term charaktermaske are found in Joseph von Eichendorff 's novel Ahnung und Gegenwart[33] a veiled attack against Napoleon, and some years later, in writings by Heinrich Heine. Heine was among the first to use the theatrical term "Charaktermaske" to describe a social setting. The shift in Marx's use of the concept, from dramaturgy and philosophy to political and economic actors, was probably influenced by his well-known appreciation of drama and literature.
The first known reference by Marx to character masks in a publication appears in an circular which Marx drafted as an exile in Brussels. In chapter 4 of The 18th Brumaire of Louis Napoleona story about the sovereign's dissolution of the French legislative assembly in in order to reign as imperial dictator, Marx describes how Napoleon abandoned one character mask for another, after find dissertation online köln the Barrot-Falloux Ministry in Contrary to Hegel's belief that states, find dissertation online köln, nations, and individuals are all the time the unconscious tools of the world spirit at work within them, [44] Marx insists that:.
The tradition of all dead generations weighs like a nightmare on the brains of the living. And just as they seem to be occupied with revolutionizing themselves find dissertation online köln things, creating something that did not exist before, precisely in such epochs of revolutionary crisis they anxiously conjure up the spirits of the past to their service, borrowing from them names, battle slogans, and costumes in order to present this new scene in world history in time-honored disguise and borrowed language.
Thus Luther put on the mask of the Apostle Paulthe Revolution of — draped itself alternately in the guise of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empireand the Revolution of knew nothing better to do than to parody, nownow the revolutionary tradition of — In —63, the Austrian writer Alfred Meissnerthe "king of the poets" criticized by Engels in his essay The True Socialists[46] published three volumes of novels under the title Charaktermasken.
Character masks are mentioned five times in Capital, Volume Iand once in Capital, Volume II. Here, the reference is specifically to economic character masks, not political character masks. However, find dissertation online köln, both the official Moscow translation of Capital, Volume I into English, as well as the revised Penguin translation of Capital, Volume I into English by Ben Fowkes, deleted all reference to character masks, substituting a non-literal translation.
Marx's concept of character masks has therefore been little known in the English-speaking world, except through the translated writings of the Frankfurt School and other mainly German or Austrian Marxists using the term. Tom Bottomore 's sociological dictionary of Marxist thought has no entry for the important concept of find dissertation online köln masks, find dissertation online köln.
Likewise Fredric Jamesonthe famous commentator on post modernity, offers no analysis of the concept. There is no entry for the find dissertation online köln in James Russell's Marx-Engels Dictionary[52] in Terrell Carver's A Marx Dictionary [53] or in the Historical Dictionary of Marxism. Jochen Hörisch claims that "despite its systematic importance, the concept of character masks was conspicuously taboo in the dogmatic interpretation of Marx".
However, Dieter Claessens mentions the concept in his Lexikon[56] there is another mention in Lexikon zur Soziologie [57] and the more recent German-language Historical-Critical Dictionary find dissertation online köln Marxism has a substantive entry for character masks by Wolfgang Fritz Haug. However, Haug is correct insofar as "character mask" as a sociological or psychological term is rarely used by non-German speakers.
Marx's argument about character masks in capitalism can be summarized [61] in six steps. The first step in his argument is that when people engage in trade, run a business or work in a job, they adopt and personify personally represent a certain function, role or behaviour pattern which is required of them to serve their obligations; their consent to the applicable rules is assumed, as a necessity to succeed in the activities.
They have to act this way, because of the co-operative relationships they necessarily have to work with in the division of labour. If they take on a role, they have to fulfill the packet of tasks which is part of the job.
People are initially born into a world find dissertation online köln which these social relationships already exist, and " socialized " into them in the process of becoming "well-adjusted adults" — to the point where they internalize their meaning, and accept them as a natural reality.
The second step in his argument is that, in acting according to an economic function, employees serve the impersonal business, legal or political interests of an abstract authoritywhich may have little or nothing to do with their own personal interests.
People are slotted into functions where they have characteristics which are at least compatible with the functions. They always have a choice in how they perform their role and how they act it out, but they have no choice about taking it on. If they succeed in their role, they can advance their position or career, but if they fail to live up to it, they are demoted or fired. Human individuality is then conceptualized in terms of the relationship between buyer and seller.
The third step in his argument is, that the practices just described necessarily lead to the "masking" of behaviors and personalitiesand to a transformation of personality and consciousness. There are also many competing, conflicting and contradictory interests at stake — and these must somehow be dealt with and reconciled by the living person. Different interests have to be constantly mediated and defended in everyday behaviour, with the aid of character masks; these masks exist to mediate conflict.
It means that people are obliged or forced to express certain qualities and repress other qualities in themselves. In doing this, however, their own consciousness and personality is altered.
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, time: 9:39Proclus (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Atlas Shrugged is a novel by Ayn blogger.com's fourth and final novel, it was also her longest, and the one she considered to be her magnum opus in the realm of fiction writing. Atlas Shrugged includes elements of science fiction, mystery, and romance, and it contains Rand's most extensive statement of Objectivism in any of her works of fiction. The theme of Atlas Shrugged, as Rand Feb 01, · Every person who owns a vehicle needs a space for parking. As the number of vehicles grows, need of space for parking increases. According to the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRT&H), India (), there is whooping growth in motor vehicle population of nearly % from 55 million in to million in in India, as shown in Fig. 1 In Marxist philosophy, a character mask (German: Charaktermaske) is a prescribed social role that serves to conceal the contradictions of a social relation or blogger.com term was used by Karl Marx in various published writings from the s to the s, and also by Friedrich blogger.com is related to the classical Greek concepts of mimesis (imitative representation using analogies) and
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